Difference between revisions of "Encarsia of Australia"
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| − | + | == Name == | |
| − | + | ||
| − | ==Name== | + | |
* ''Encarsia'' {{aut|Förster}}, 1878 [[Wikispecies:Encarsia|Wikispecies link]] | * ''Encarsia'' {{aut|Förster}}, 1878 [[Wikispecies:Encarsia|Wikispecies link]] | ||
| − | ==Introduction== | + | == Introduction == |
| − | + | ||
| − | + | '''''Encarsia''''' is a large, cosmopolitan genus of tiny parasitic wasps of the family [[Wikipedia:Aphelinidae|Aphelinidae]], currently containing about 400 described species<ref name=Noyes2003> Noyes, J.S. (2003) [http://www.nhm.ac.uk/research-curation/research/projects/chalcidoids/ Universal Chalcidoidea database].</ref>. The number of existing species is expected to be several times higher because many species are still undescribed<ref name="Heraty2008">Heraty, J.M., Polaszek, A. & Schauff, M.E. (2008) Systematics and Biology of ''Encarsia''. Chapter 4, pp. 71-87 in: Gould, J., Hoelmer, K. & Goolsby, J. (Eds), In: Classical Biological Control of ''Bemisia tabaci'' in the United States. A review of interagency research and implementation. Progress in Biological Control 4. . Springer Science and Business Media B.V. 1-343.</ref>. The adult wasps, tiny insects with 1-2 mm in size, are primarily [[Wikipedia:parasitoid|parasitoids]] of sessile stages of [[Wikipedia:Sternorrhyncha|Sternorrhyncha]], in particular [[Wikipedia:Whitefly|whiteflies]] (Aleyrodidae) and [[Wikipedia:scale insect|scale insects]] (Diaspididae). A few species are known to parasitize [[Wikipedia:aphid|aphids]], eggs of shield-back bugs ([[Wikipedia:Plataspididae|Plataspidae]]), or eggs of [[Wikipedia:Lepidoptera|Lepidoptera]]. Females are mostly developing as primary endoparasitoids whereas males are commonly hyperparasitoids of the same or other species<ref>Williams, T. and Polaszek, A. (1996) A re-examination of host relations in the Aphelinidae (Hymenoptera: Chalcidoidea). Biological Journal of the Linnaean Society 57: 35-45. {{doi|10.1111/j.1095-8312.1996.tb01694.x}}</ref><ref>Hunter, M.S. and J.B. Woolley (2001) Evolution and behavioral ecology of heteronomous aphelinid parasitoids. Annual Review of Entomology 46: 251-290. [http://ag.arizona.edu/ento/faculty/hunter/PAPERS/13.Hunter&Woolley01.pdf PDF]</ref>. | |
| − | + | Species of ''Encarsia'' have been considered as the most efficacious group of biocontrol agents of whitefly pests on a broad range of agricultural crops. Recently their economic importance has been recognized worldwide and more attention has been given to their taxonomy. This is especially true of the ''Encarsia'' species parasitic on whiteflies. New species are being continuously added and there is evidence for the presence of complexes of cryptic species within several of these described species. | |
| − | [[ | + | |
| − | + | Before 2006 the Australian ''Encarsia'' fauna was largely unknown and the few taxonomic treatments were almost exclusively based on the study of type specimens<ref>Viggiani G. 1985. Additional notes and illustrations on some species of aphelinids described by A. A. Girault and A. P. Dodd in the genera ''Coccophagus'' Westwood, ''Encarsia'' Först. and ''Prospaltella'' Ashm. (Hym.: Chalcidoidea). Bollettino del Laboratorio di Entomologia Agraria ‘‘Filippo Silvestri’’, Portici 42:233–255.</ref>, most of which had been described by [[wikipedia:Alexandre Arsène Girault|Alexandre Arsène Girault]]<ref>Dahms EC. 1978. A checklist of the types of Australian Hymenoptera described by Alexandre Arsene Girault: I. Introduction, acknowledgments, biography, bibliography and localities. Memoirs of the Queensland Museum 19:127–190.</ref><ref>Dahms EC. 1983. A checklist of the types of Australian Hymenoptera described by Alexandre Arsene Girault: II. Preamble and Chalcidoidea species A–E with advisory notes. Memoirs of the Queensland Museum 21:1–255.</ref><ref>Dahms EC. 1984. A checklist of the types of Australian Hymenoptera described by Alexandre Arsene Girault: III. Chalcidoidea species F–M with advisory comments. Memoirs of the Queensland Museum 21:579–842.</ref><ref>Dahms EC. 1986. A checklist of the types of Australian Hymenoptera described by Alexandre Arsene Girault: IV. Chalcidoidea species N–Z and genera with advisory notes plus addenda and corrigenda. Memoirs of the Queensland Museum 22:319–739.</ref>. After Girault’s contribution, the genus ''Encarsia'' in Australia was largely ignored, and it was only after the establishment of the B-biotype of the [[wikipedia:Silverleaf whitefly|silverleaf whitefly]] in 1994 that interest in ''Encarsia'' resurfaced. Australia has never before had a serious whitefly pest of outdoor crops and, as a consequence, there was very little research experience present in Australia capable of dealing with that pest. Subsequently a research programme was initiated because there were indications that agents capable of contributing significantly to the biological control of this pest may already be present in Australia. During this research project it became apparent that the genus ''Encarsia'' is particularly diverse in Australia. This observation was supported by the high species richness of host taxa, in particular whiteflies<ref>Carver M, Reid IA. 1996. Aleyrodidae (Hemiptera: Sternorrhyncha) of Australia. CSIRO Division of Entomology Technical Paper 37:1–55.</ref><ref>Martin JH. 1999. The whitefly fauna of Australia (Sternorrhyncha: Aleyrodidae). A taxonomic account and identification guide. Commonwealth Scientific and Industrial Research Organization, Technical Paper 38:1–197.</ref>, and the high number of Australian species described by early authors: between 1913 and 1939 44 species of ''Encarsia'' were described, mostly by Girault. Nearly all of those species were insufficiently described and they are usually known only from the type specimen which is often in very poor condition. | |
| + | |||
| + | For Australia 94 ''Encarsia'' species are treated as valid<ref>Schmidt, S. & Polaszek, A. (2007). The Australian species of Encarsia Förster (Hymenoptera, Chalcidoidea: Aphelinidae), parasitoids of whiteflies (Hemiptera, Sternorrhyncha: Aleyrodidae) and armoured scale insects (Hemiptera, Coccoidea: Diaspididae). Journal of Natural History 41(33-36): 2099–2265. {{doi|10.1080/00222930701550766}}</ref>. This is the highest number of species for any country, followed by China (76 species)<ref>Huang J, Polaszek A. 1998. A revision of the Chinese species of Encarsia Förster (Hymenoptera: Aphelinidae): parasitoids of whiteflies, scale insects and aphids (Hemiptera: Aleyrodidae, Diaspididae, Aphidoidea). Journal of Natural History 32:1825–1966.</ref> and India (52 species)<ref>Hayat M. 1998. Aphelinidae of India (Hymenoptera: Chalcidoidea): a taxonomic revision. Memoirs on Entomology, International 13:1–416.</ref>. Many ''Encarsia'' species have a wide or even cosmopolitan distribution, complicating taxonomic revisions on a local scale. However, in Australia three-quarters of the species seem to be restricted in their distribution to Australia, indicating a high level of endemism. | ||
| + | |||
| + | In Australia species richness of ''Encarsia'' is highest in Queensland with 65 species, followed by Western Australia with 31 species (33%) and New South Wales with 15 species (16%). The remaining states or territories (excluding external territories) | ||
| + | have between three (Australian Capital Territory) and nine species (South Australia). It is estimated that the number of species occurring in Australia is about two to three times higher than currently known. This estimate is to some extent based on the relatively high species diversity of whiteflies in Australia, comprising about 110 described species with estimates of the total number of species being about three times as many<ref>Martin JH. 1999. The whitefly fauna of Australia (Sternorrhyncha: Aleyrodidae). A taxonomic account and identification guide. Commonwealth Scientific and Industrial Research Organization, Technical Paper 38:1–197.</ref>. About one-third of all ''Encarsia'' species with known host records parasitize armoured scale insects which are similarly diverse in Australia with about 240 species<ref>Carver M, Gross GF, Woodward TE. 1991. Hemiptera. In: CSIRO, editor. The insects of Australia. A textbook for students and research workers. Volume 1. 2nd ed. Melbourne: Melbourne University Press. p 429–509.</ref>. Species attacking armoured scale insects are still underrepresented because there has been more interest in parasitoids of whiteflies than in those species attacking diaspidids. | ||
| + | |||
| + | == Diagnosis == | ||
| − | |||
For a positive diagnosis of ''Encarsia'' (females), the presence of the following character states is required: | For a positive diagnosis of ''Encarsia'' (females), the presence of the following character states is required: | ||
| + | |||
* Fore and hind tarsi with five tarsomeres | * Fore and hind tarsi with five tarsomeres | ||
* Antenna (excluding radicle) with eight antennomeres | * Antenna (excluding radicle) with eight antennomeres | ||
| Line 24: | Line 29: | ||
* Stigmal vein very short, less than one-quarter of the length of the marginal vein | * Stigmal vein very short, less than one-quarter of the length of the marginal vein | ||
| − | The closely related genus ''Coccophagus'' differs from ''Encarsia'' primarily in having six or more setae on the scutellum. The | + | The closely related genus ''Coccophagus'' differs from ''Encarsia'' primarily in having six or more setae on the scutellum. |
| + | |||
| + | == Preparation and identification == | ||
| + | |||
| + | [[File:Encarsia-slide-example.jpg|thumb| Slide mount with wings, antenna, body, and head under separate slides]] | ||
| + | |||
| + | The identification of ''Encarsia'' species is complicated because of their small size necessitating laborious slide-mounting. The taxonomy of ''Encarsia'' is primarily based on morphological characters that can only be examined in slide mounted specimens using contrast enhancing techniques like phase contrast or differential interference contrast (see detailed instructions for [[slide preparation of Encarsia|making slide preparations of ''Encarsia'']] and other microhymenoptera). | ||
== Species pages == | == Species pages == | ||
| − | * [[Encarsia accenta Schmidt & Naumann]] | + | |
| − | * [[Encarsia adela Schmidt & Polaszek]] | + | * [[Encarsia accenta Schmidt & Naumann|''Encarsia accenta'' Schmidt & Naumann]] |
| − | * [[Encarsia adusta Schmidt & Naumann]] | + | * [[Encarsia adela Schmidt & Polaszek|''Encarsia adela'' Schmidt & Polaszek]] |
| − | * [[Encarsia albiscutellum (Girault)]] | + | * [[Encarsia adusta Schmidt & Naumann|''Encarsia adusta'' Schmidt & Naumann]] |
| − | * [[Encarsia citrina (Craw)]] | + | * [[Encarsia aferi Schmidt & Polaszek|''Encarsia aferi'' Schmidt & Polaszek]] |
| − | * [[Encarsia | + | * [[Encarsia albiscutellum (Girault)|''Encarsia albiscutellum'' (Girault)]] |
| − | * [[Encarsia iris (Girault)]] | + | * [[Encarsia aldrichi Schmidt & Polaszek|''Encarsia aldrichi'' Schmidt & Polaszek]] |
| − | * [[Encarsia nigriventris (Girault)]] | + | * [[Encarsia ancora Schmidt & Polaszek|''Encarsia ancora'' Schmidt & Polaszek]] |
| − | * [[Encarsia pergandiella Howard]] | + | * [[Encarsia antiopa (Girault)|''Encarsia antiopa'' (Girault)]] |
| + | * [[Encarsia armillata Schmidt & Polaszek|''Encarsia armillata'' Schmidt & Polaszek]] | ||
| + | * [[Encarsia aseta Hayat & Polaszek|''Encarsia aseta'' Hayat & Polaszek]] | ||
| + | * [[Encarsia ashmeadi (Girault)|''Encarsia ashmeadi'' (Girault)]] | ||
| + | * [[Encarsia aurantii (Howard)|''Encarsia aurantii'' (Howard)]] | ||
| + | * [[Encarsia aureola (Girault)|''Encarsia aureola'' (Girault)]] | ||
| + | * [[Encarsia aurithorax Girault|''Encarsia aurithorax'' Girault]] | ||
| + | * [[Encarsia azimi Hayat|''Encarsia azimi'' Hayat]] | ||
| + | * [[Encarsia bifasciata Schmidt & Polaszek|''Encarsia bifasciata'' Schmidt & Polaszek]] | ||
| + | * [[Encarsia bimaculata Heraty & Polaszek|''Encarsia bimaculata'' Heraty & Polaszek]] | ||
| + | * [[Encarsia boswelli (Girault)|''Encarsia boswelli'' (Girault)]] | ||
| + | * [[Encarsia brahmsi (Girault)|''Encarsia brahmsi'' (Girault)]] | ||
| + | * [[Encarsia brimblecombei (Girault)|''Encarsia brimblecombei'' (Girault)]] | ||
| + | * [[Encarsia bunyae Schmidt & Polaszek|''Encarsia bunyae'' Schmidt & Polaszek]] | ||
| + | * [[Encarsia capensis Schmidt & Polaszek|''Encarsia capensis'' Schmidt & Polaszek]] | ||
| + | * [[Encarsia cappa Schmidt & Polaszek|''Encarsia cappa'' Schmidt & Polaszek]] | ||
| + | * [[Encarsia cassida Schmidt & Polaszek|''Encarsia cassida'' Schmidt & Polaszek]] | ||
| + | * [[Encarsia chaetogastra Schmidt & Polaszek|''Encarsia chaetogastra'' Schmidt & Polaszek]] | ||
| + | * [[Encarsia chauliodoa Schmidt & Polaszek|''Encarsia chauliodoa'' Schmidt & Polaszek]] | ||
| + | * [[Encarsia citrina (Craw)|''Encarsia citrina'' (Craw)]] | ||
| + | * [[Encarsia clara (Dodd)|''Encarsia clara'' (Dodd)]] | ||
| + | * [[Encarsia clariscutellum (Girault)|''Encarsia clariscutellum'' (Girault)]] | ||
| + | * [[Encarsia craspedia Schmidt & Polaszek|''Encarsia craspedia'' Schmidt & Polaszek]] | ||
| + | * [[Encarsia cybele Girault|''Encarsia cybele'' Girault]] | ||
| + | * [[Encarsia despecta Schmidt & Polaszek|''Encarsia despecta'' Schmidt & Polaszek]] | ||
| + | * [[Encarsia dispersa Polaszek|''Encarsia dispersa'' Polaszek]] | ||
| + | * [[Encarsia elegans Masi|''Encarsia elegans'' Masi]] | ||
| + | * [[Encarsia farinaria Schmidt & Polaszek|''Encarsia farinaria'' Schmidt & Polaszek]] | ||
| + | * [[Encarsia fasciola Schmidt & Polaszek|''Encarsia fasciola'' Schmidt & Polaszek]] | ||
| + | * [[Encarsia formosa Gahan|''Encarsia formosa'' Gahan]] | ||
| + | * [[Encarsia grotei (Girault)|''Encarsia grotei'' (Girault)]] | ||
| + | * [[Encarsia hapalia Schmidt & Polaszek|''Encarsia hapalia'' Schmidt & Polaszek]] | ||
| + | * [[Encarsia horatii (Girault)|''Encarsia horatii'' (Girault)]] | ||
| + | * [[Encarsia insignis Schmidt & Polaszek|''Encarsia insignis'' Schmidt & Polaszek]] | ||
| + | * [[Encarsia iris (Girault)|''Encarsia iris'' (Girault)]] | ||
| + | * [[Encarsia justicia Girault|''Encarsia justicia'' Girault]] | ||
| + | * [[Encarsia kalamundae Schmidt & Polaszek|''Encarsia kalamundae'' Schmidt & Polaszek]] | ||
| + | * [[Encarsia leptosa Schmidt & Polaszek|''Encarsia leptosa'' Schmidt & Polaszek]] | ||
| + | * [[Encarsia leucippi (Girault)|''Encarsia leucippi'' (Girault)]] | ||
| + | * [[Encarsia longicauda Hayat|''Encarsia longicauda'' Hayat]] | ||
| + | * [[Encarsia longifasciata Subba Rao|''Encarsia longifasciata'' Subba Rao]] | ||
| + | * [[Encarsia longisetosa Schmidt & Polaszek|''Encarsia longisetosa'' Schmidt & Polaszek]] | ||
| + | * [[Encarsia longispina Schmidt & Polaszek|''Encarsia longispina'' Schmidt & Polaszek]] | ||
| + | * [[Encarsia longivalvula Viggiani|''Encarsia longivalvula'' Viggiani]] | ||
| + | * [[Encarsia lounsburyi (Berlese & Paoli)|''Encarsia lounsburyi'' (Berlese & Paoli)]] | ||
| + | * [[Encarsia lutea (Masi)|''Encarsia lutea'' (Masi)]] | ||
| + | * [[Encarsia maculata Schmidt & Polaszek|''Encarsia maculata'' Schmidt & Polaszek]] | ||
| + | * [[Encarsia maria (Girault)|''Encarsia maria'' (Girault)]] | ||
| + | * [[Encarsia marxi (Girault)|''Encarsia marxi'' (Girault)]] | ||
| + | * [[Encarsia maura Schmidt & Polaszek|''Encarsia maura'' Schmidt & Polaszek]] | ||
| + | * [[Encarsia mineoi Viggiani|''Encarsia mineoi'' Viggiani]] | ||
| + | * [[Encarsia nigriventris (Girault)|''Encarsia nigriventris'' (Girault)]] | ||
| + | * [[Encarsia nitella Schmidt & Polaszek|''Encarsia nitella'' Schmidt & Polaszek]] | ||
| + | * [[Encarsia notha Schmidt & Polaszek|''Encarsia notha'' Schmidt & Polaszek]] | ||
| + | * [[Encarsia oakeyensis Schmidt & Naumann|''Encarsia oakeyensis'' Schmidt & Naumann]] | ||
| + | * [[Encarsia obliqua Schmidt & Polaszek|''Encarsia obliqua'' Schmidt & Polaszek]] | ||
| + | * [[Encarsia olgae Schmidt & Polaszek|''Encarsia olgae'' Schmidt & Polaszek]] | ||
| + | * [[Encarsia papaceki Schmidt & Polaszek|''Encarsia papaceki'' Schmidt & Polaszek]] | ||
| + | * [[Encarsia paucisetosa Schmidt & Polaszek|''Encarsia paucisetosa'' Schmidt & Polaszek]] | ||
| + | * [[Encarsia pedana Schmidt & Polaszek|''Encarsia pedana'' Schmidt & Polaszek]] | ||
| + | * [[Encarsia pergandiella Howard|''Encarsia pergandiella'' Howard]] | ||
| + | * [[Encarsia perniciosi (Tower)|''Encarsia perniciosi'' (Tower)]] | ||
| + | * [[Encarsia perpulchella (Girault)|''Encarsia perpulchella'' (Girault)]] | ||
| + | * [[Encarsia perseus (Girault)|''Encarsia perseus'' (Girault)]] | ||
| + | * [[Encarsia picithorax (Girault)|''Encarsia picithorax'' (Girault)]] | ||
| + | * [[Encarsia pilosa Schmidt & Polaszek|''Encarsia pilosa'' Schmidt & Polaszek]] | ||
| + | * [[Encarsia praecipua Schmidt & Polaszek|''Encarsia praecipua'' Schmidt & Polaszek]] | ||
| + | * [[Encarsia prolata Schmidt & Polaszek|''Encarsia prolata'' Schmidt & Polaszek]] | ||
| + | * [[Encarsia protransvena Viggiani|''Encarsia protransvena'' Viggiani]] | ||
| + | * [[Encarsia pulliclava (Girault)|''Encarsia pulliclava'' (Girault)]] | ||
| + | * [[Encarsia rentzi Schmidt & Polaszek|''Encarsia rentzi'' Schmidt & Polaszek]] | ||
| + | * [[Encarsia scylla Schmidt & Polaszek|''Encarsia scylla'' Schmidt & Polaszek]] | ||
| + | * [[Encarsia seminigriclava (Girault)|''Encarsia seminigriclava'' (Girault)]] | ||
| + | * [[Encarsia silvifilia (Girault)|''Encarsia silvifilia'' (Girault)]] | ||
| + | * [[Encarsia socratis (Girault)|''Encarsia socratis'' (Girault)]] | ||
| + | * [[Encarsia sophia (Girault & Dodd)|''Encarsia sophia'' (Girault & Dodd)]] | ||
| + | * [[Encarsia spinosa Schmidt & Polaszek|''Encarsia spinosa'' Schmidt & Polaszek]] | ||
| + | * [[Encarsia stirlingia Schmidt & Polaszek|''Encarsia stirlingia'' Schmidt & Polaszek]] | ||
| + | * [[Encarsia subhyalina Schmidt & Polaszek|''Encarsia subhyalina'' Schmidt & Polaszek]] | ||
| + | * [[Encarsia submetallica (Girault)|''Encarsia submetallica'' (Girault)]] | ||
| + | * [[Encarsia swifti (Girault)|''Encarsia swifti'' (Girault)]] | ||
| + | * [[Encarsia taciti (Girault)|''Encarsia taciti'' (Girault)]] | ||
| + | * [[Encarsia tennysoni (Girault)|''Encarsia tennysoni'' (Girault)]] | ||
| + | * [[Encarsia thoreauini (Girault)|''Encarsia thoreauini'' (Girault)]] | ||
| + | * [[Encarsia totiaurea (Girault)|''Encarsia totiaurea'' (Girault)]] | ||
| + | * [[Encarsia toticilia Girault|''Encarsia toticilia'' Girault]] | ||
| + | * [[Encarsia tristis (Zehntner)|''Encarsia tristis'' (Zehntner)]] | ||
| + | * [[Encarsia uncinata Schmidt & Polaszek|''Encarsia uncinata'' Schmidt & Polaszek]] | ||
| + | * [[Encarsia unfasciata (Girault)|''Encarsia unfasciata'' (Girault)]] | ||
| + | * [[Encarsia ustulata Schmidt & Naumann|''Encarsia ustulata'' Schmidt & Naumann]] | ||
| + | * [[Encarsia whittieri Girault|''Encarsia whittieri'' Girault]] | ||
== References == | == References == | ||
| + | |||
<div class='references-small'> | <div class='references-small'> | ||
<references/> | <references/> | ||
| Line 43: | Line 145: | ||
== External links == | == External links == | ||
| + | |||
[http://www.ento.csiro.au/science/encarsia/ Interactive key to ''Encarsia'' species of Australia and the Pacific Islands attacking ''Bemisia tabaci'' and ''Trialeurodes vaporariorum'']<br /> | [http://www.ento.csiro.au/science/encarsia/ Interactive key to ''Encarsia'' species of Australia and the Pacific Islands attacking ''Bemisia tabaci'' and ''Trialeurodes vaporariorum'']<br /> | ||
| − | [[Wikipedia:Encarsia| ''Encarsia'' on Wikipedia]] | + | [[Wikipedia:Encarsia|''Encarsia'' on Wikipedia]] |
Latest revision as of 16:26, 1 December 2014
Name
- Encarsia Förster, 1878 Wikispecies link
Introduction
Encarsia is a large, cosmopolitan genus of tiny parasitic wasps of the family Aphelinidae, currently containing about 400 described species[1]. The number of existing species is expected to be several times higher because many species are still undescribed[2]. The adult wasps, tiny insects with 1-2 mm in size, are primarily parasitoids of sessile stages of Sternorrhyncha, in particular whiteflies (Aleyrodidae) and scale insects (Diaspididae). A few species are known to parasitize aphids, eggs of shield-back bugs (Plataspidae), or eggs of Lepidoptera. Females are mostly developing as primary endoparasitoids whereas males are commonly hyperparasitoids of the same or other species[3][4].
Species of Encarsia have been considered as the most efficacious group of biocontrol agents of whitefly pests on a broad range of agricultural crops. Recently their economic importance has been recognized worldwide and more attention has been given to their taxonomy. This is especially true of the Encarsia species parasitic on whiteflies. New species are being continuously added and there is evidence for the presence of complexes of cryptic species within several of these described species.
Before 2006 the Australian Encarsia fauna was largely unknown and the few taxonomic treatments were almost exclusively based on the study of type specimens[5], most of which had been described by Alexandre Arsène Girault[6][7][8][9]. After Girault’s contribution, the genus Encarsia in Australia was largely ignored, and it was only after the establishment of the B-biotype of the silverleaf whitefly in 1994 that interest in Encarsia resurfaced. Australia has never before had a serious whitefly pest of outdoor crops and, as a consequence, there was very little research experience present in Australia capable of dealing with that pest. Subsequently a research programme was initiated because there were indications that agents capable of contributing significantly to the biological control of this pest may already be present in Australia. During this research project it became apparent that the genus Encarsia is particularly diverse in Australia. This observation was supported by the high species richness of host taxa, in particular whiteflies[10][11], and the high number of Australian species described by early authors: between 1913 and 1939 44 species of Encarsia were described, mostly by Girault. Nearly all of those species were insufficiently described and they are usually known only from the type specimen which is often in very poor condition.
For Australia 94 Encarsia species are treated as valid[12]. This is the highest number of species for any country, followed by China (76 species)[13] and India (52 species)[14]. Many Encarsia species have a wide or even cosmopolitan distribution, complicating taxonomic revisions on a local scale. However, in Australia three-quarters of the species seem to be restricted in their distribution to Australia, indicating a high level of endemism.
In Australia species richness of Encarsia is highest in Queensland with 65 species, followed by Western Australia with 31 species (33%) and New South Wales with 15 species (16%). The remaining states or territories (excluding external territories) have between three (Australian Capital Territory) and nine species (South Australia). It is estimated that the number of species occurring in Australia is about two to three times higher than currently known. This estimate is to some extent based on the relatively high species diversity of whiteflies in Australia, comprising about 110 described species with estimates of the total number of species being about three times as many[15]. About one-third of all Encarsia species with known host records parasitize armoured scale insects which are similarly diverse in Australia with about 240 species[16]. Species attacking armoured scale insects are still underrepresented because there has been more interest in parasitoids of whiteflies than in those species attacking diaspidids.
Diagnosis
For a positive diagnosis of Encarsia (females), the presence of the following character states is required:
- Fore and hind tarsi with five tarsomeres
- Antenna (excluding radicle) with eight antennomeres
- Scutellum with two pairs of setae
- Marginal vein longer than submarginal vein
- Postmarginal vein absent
- Stigmal vein very short, less than one-quarter of the length of the marginal vein
The closely related genus Coccophagus differs from Encarsia primarily in having six or more setae on the scutellum.
Preparation and identification
The identification of Encarsia species is complicated because of their small size necessitating laborious slide-mounting. The taxonomy of Encarsia is primarily based on morphological characters that can only be examined in slide mounted specimens using contrast enhancing techniques like phase contrast or differential interference contrast (see detailed instructions for making slide preparations of Encarsia and other microhymenoptera).
Species pages
- Encarsia accenta Schmidt & Naumann
- Encarsia adela Schmidt & Polaszek
- Encarsia adusta Schmidt & Naumann
- Encarsia aferi Schmidt & Polaszek
- Encarsia albiscutellum (Girault)
- Encarsia aldrichi Schmidt & Polaszek
- Encarsia ancora Schmidt & Polaszek
- Encarsia antiopa (Girault)
- Encarsia armillata Schmidt & Polaszek
- Encarsia aseta Hayat & Polaszek
- Encarsia ashmeadi (Girault)
- Encarsia aurantii (Howard)
- Encarsia aureola (Girault)
- Encarsia aurithorax Girault
- Encarsia azimi Hayat
- Encarsia bifasciata Schmidt & Polaszek
- Encarsia bimaculata Heraty & Polaszek
- Encarsia boswelli (Girault)
- Encarsia brahmsi (Girault)
- Encarsia brimblecombei (Girault)
- Encarsia bunyae Schmidt & Polaszek
- Encarsia capensis Schmidt & Polaszek
- Encarsia cappa Schmidt & Polaszek
- Encarsia cassida Schmidt & Polaszek
- Encarsia chaetogastra Schmidt & Polaszek
- Encarsia chauliodoa Schmidt & Polaszek
- Encarsia citrina (Craw)
- Encarsia clara (Dodd)
- Encarsia clariscutellum (Girault)
- Encarsia craspedia Schmidt & Polaszek
- Encarsia cybele Girault
- Encarsia despecta Schmidt & Polaszek
- Encarsia dispersa Polaszek
- Encarsia elegans Masi
- Encarsia farinaria Schmidt & Polaszek
- Encarsia fasciola Schmidt & Polaszek
- Encarsia formosa Gahan
- Encarsia grotei (Girault)
- Encarsia hapalia Schmidt & Polaszek
- Encarsia horatii (Girault)
- Encarsia insignis Schmidt & Polaszek
- Encarsia iris (Girault)
- Encarsia justicia Girault
- Encarsia kalamundae Schmidt & Polaszek
- Encarsia leptosa Schmidt & Polaszek
- Encarsia leucippi (Girault)
- Encarsia longicauda Hayat
- Encarsia longifasciata Subba Rao
- Encarsia longisetosa Schmidt & Polaszek
- Encarsia longispina Schmidt & Polaszek
- Encarsia longivalvula Viggiani
- Encarsia lounsburyi (Berlese & Paoli)
- Encarsia lutea (Masi)
- Encarsia maculata Schmidt & Polaszek
- Encarsia maria (Girault)
- Encarsia marxi (Girault)
- Encarsia maura Schmidt & Polaszek
- Encarsia mineoi Viggiani
- Encarsia nigriventris (Girault)
- Encarsia nitella Schmidt & Polaszek
- Encarsia notha Schmidt & Polaszek
- Encarsia oakeyensis Schmidt & Naumann
- Encarsia obliqua Schmidt & Polaszek
- Encarsia olgae Schmidt & Polaszek
- Encarsia papaceki Schmidt & Polaszek
- Encarsia paucisetosa Schmidt & Polaszek
- Encarsia pedana Schmidt & Polaszek
- Encarsia pergandiella Howard
- Encarsia perniciosi (Tower)
- Encarsia perpulchella (Girault)
- Encarsia perseus (Girault)
- Encarsia picithorax (Girault)
- Encarsia pilosa Schmidt & Polaszek
- Encarsia praecipua Schmidt & Polaszek
- Encarsia prolata Schmidt & Polaszek
- Encarsia protransvena Viggiani
- Encarsia pulliclava (Girault)
- Encarsia rentzi Schmidt & Polaszek
- Encarsia scylla Schmidt & Polaszek
- Encarsia seminigriclava (Girault)
- Encarsia silvifilia (Girault)
- Encarsia socratis (Girault)
- Encarsia sophia (Girault & Dodd)
- Encarsia spinosa Schmidt & Polaszek
- Encarsia stirlingia Schmidt & Polaszek
- Encarsia subhyalina Schmidt & Polaszek
- Encarsia submetallica (Girault)
- Encarsia swifti (Girault)
- Encarsia taciti (Girault)
- Encarsia tennysoni (Girault)
- Encarsia thoreauini (Girault)
- Encarsia totiaurea (Girault)
- Encarsia toticilia Girault
- Encarsia tristis (Zehntner)
- Encarsia uncinata Schmidt & Polaszek
- Encarsia unfasciata (Girault)
- Encarsia ustulata Schmidt & Naumann
- Encarsia whittieri Girault
References
- ↑ Noyes, J.S. (2003) Universal Chalcidoidea database.
- ↑ Heraty, J.M., Polaszek, A. & Schauff, M.E. (2008) Systematics and Biology of Encarsia. Chapter 4, pp. 71-87 in: Gould, J., Hoelmer, K. & Goolsby, J. (Eds), In: Classical Biological Control of Bemisia tabaci in the United States. A review of interagency research and implementation. Progress in Biological Control 4. . Springer Science and Business Media B.V. 1-343.
- ↑ Williams, T. and Polaszek, A. (1996) A re-examination of host relations in the Aphelinidae (Hymenoptera: Chalcidoidea). Biological Journal of the Linnaean Society 57: 35-45. doi
- ↑ Hunter, M.S. and J.B. Woolley (2001) Evolution and behavioral ecology of heteronomous aphelinid parasitoids. Annual Review of Entomology 46: 251-290. PDF
- ↑ Viggiani G. 1985. Additional notes and illustrations on some species of aphelinids described by A. A. Girault and A. P. Dodd in the genera Coccophagus Westwood, Encarsia Först. and Prospaltella Ashm. (Hym.: Chalcidoidea). Bollettino del Laboratorio di Entomologia Agraria ‘‘Filippo Silvestri’’, Portici 42:233–255.
- ↑ Dahms EC. 1978. A checklist of the types of Australian Hymenoptera described by Alexandre Arsene Girault: I. Introduction, acknowledgments, biography, bibliography and localities. Memoirs of the Queensland Museum 19:127–190.
- ↑ Dahms EC. 1983. A checklist of the types of Australian Hymenoptera described by Alexandre Arsene Girault: II. Preamble and Chalcidoidea species A–E with advisory notes. Memoirs of the Queensland Museum 21:1–255.
- ↑ Dahms EC. 1984. A checklist of the types of Australian Hymenoptera described by Alexandre Arsene Girault: III. Chalcidoidea species F–M with advisory comments. Memoirs of the Queensland Museum 21:579–842.
- ↑ Dahms EC. 1986. A checklist of the types of Australian Hymenoptera described by Alexandre Arsene Girault: IV. Chalcidoidea species N–Z and genera with advisory notes plus addenda and corrigenda. Memoirs of the Queensland Museum 22:319–739.
- ↑ Carver M, Reid IA. 1996. Aleyrodidae (Hemiptera: Sternorrhyncha) of Australia. CSIRO Division of Entomology Technical Paper 37:1–55.
- ↑ Martin JH. 1999. The whitefly fauna of Australia (Sternorrhyncha: Aleyrodidae). A taxonomic account and identification guide. Commonwealth Scientific and Industrial Research Organization, Technical Paper 38:1–197.
- ↑ Schmidt, S. & Polaszek, A. (2007). The Australian species of Encarsia Förster (Hymenoptera, Chalcidoidea: Aphelinidae), parasitoids of whiteflies (Hemiptera, Sternorrhyncha: Aleyrodidae) and armoured scale insects (Hemiptera, Coccoidea: Diaspididae). Journal of Natural History 41(33-36): 2099–2265. doi
- ↑ Huang J, Polaszek A. 1998. A revision of the Chinese species of Encarsia Förster (Hymenoptera: Aphelinidae): parasitoids of whiteflies, scale insects and aphids (Hemiptera: Aleyrodidae, Diaspididae, Aphidoidea). Journal of Natural History 32:1825–1966.
- ↑ Hayat M. 1998. Aphelinidae of India (Hymenoptera: Chalcidoidea): a taxonomic revision. Memoirs on Entomology, International 13:1–416.
- ↑ Martin JH. 1999. The whitefly fauna of Australia (Sternorrhyncha: Aleyrodidae). A taxonomic account and identification guide. Commonwealth Scientific and Industrial Research Organization, Technical Paper 38:1–197.
- ↑ Carver M, Gross GF, Woodward TE. 1991. Hemiptera. In: CSIRO, editor. The insects of Australia. A textbook for students and research workers. Volume 1. 2nd ed. Melbourne: Melbourne University Press. p 429–509.
External links
Interactive key to Encarsia species of Australia and the Pacific Islands attacking Bemisia tabaci and Trialeurodes vaporariorum
Encarsia on Wikipedia
